Mountain Agriculture Nepal

Nepal is an agrarian country. Agriculture and its related activities remain key components of the mountain rural economy and of land use in mountain areas.

Pastoralism and transhumance are an integral part of traditional farming in most mountain agriculture. These practices contribute to maintaining biodiversity as well as a wide range of traditional products (cheese, meat products) which can be the pillar of quality oriented development activities, enhancing also the touristic potential of the area.   Pastoralism corresponds to the extensive breeding of herds of various species (cattle, sheep, goats, horses) requiring periodic migration to reach the pastures. Pastoral systems in mountain areas are often characterized by the seasonal grazing of domestic livestock at low densities in large open areas, often on common land dominated by semi-natural vegetation. Agricultural use of common land is generally managed by pastoral land use associations. Professional shepherds are often recruited for big herds, while small herds are in general watched over by the breeder. Many stockbreeders practice 'sedentary pastoralism': the animals are kept on widespread grassland or rangeland, all areas used being integrated into the farm and not requiring seasonal migration.  Transhumance is the regular movement of herds between fixed points to exploit the seasonal availability of pasturelands. The herds are taken for a given period at such a distance so that returning daily is impossible. Shepherds live for this period with their herd in a hut or a secondary farm, or regularly travel between their distant farm and these pasturelands to watch over their animals. Throughout Europe, more than 4 million ha of agricultural land depend on transhumance.

In the case of summer transhumance while the livestock are away, the lower ground is mown for hay to provide winter fodder   – in the process creating an unenclosed mosaic of mixed habitats. Forage can be grown and stored for use when natural grazing is not available. The large transhumance (long distance summer migration that can reach several hundred km) is practiced primarily for sheep in the Mediterranean region. The seasonal pastures are linked by ancient drovers' roads running between the plains and the mountains. The small transhumance or local transhumance (summer migration of the animals for short distances, in general < 20 km) is often a vertical migration, from the valley where the farm is located and where the animals winter, to the higher, but closer, zones.   The winter transhumance is the: migration of the herds (especially sheep) towards regions of low altitude, in particular towards the coastal regions, where they will spend the winter. 

Introduction to mountain farming

Mountain farming is broadly defined as all land-based activities, such as
 cropping, horticulture, animal husbandry, forestry, and their interlinkages, and is the prime source of sustenance of the mountain populations. Farming is also the prime user of the natural resource base and production environment in
 mountain areas. Currently, mountain agriculture presents the two following
 scenarios:

i.               A predominant scenario of subsistence farming in which there is deterioration in both the economy and the environment.

ii.              The emerging commercialization of agriculture through cash crop
 farming, with hope for the positive growth and economic prosperity of mountain populations.

Weakness and threats of mountain agriculture:

1.      Permanent handicaps, natural hazards and climate change

·         Low temperatures limit crop growth and development through the impact on important physiological processes such as photosynthesis and leaf appearance.

·          Land in which thermal-time accumulation systematically is not sufficient for crops to complete the production cycle is unfavorable for agriculture. Negligible growth occurs for most agricultural crops at temperatures below5^o C.

·         Steeper slopes are also associated with shallower soils and with a higher risk for soil erosion and landslides.

·         Soils in mountain more sensitive to degradation and require adapted land-use patterns which are often met by traditional silvo-agro-pastoral practices.

·         Finally, recent studies (EEA, 2009) and expert hearings emphasize the double fold impact that climate change can have on mountain areas. An increase in temperature and sufficient water supply may prolong the vegetative period resulting in a short-term increase in agricultural yield. Furthermore, the increase in atmospheric CO2 levels will have a fertilising effect on crop growth for certain species and on grassland productivity. On the other hand, global warming will exacerbate the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events (such as intense droughts, heat waves and torrential rainfall), and their consequences (including forest dieback, large-scale fires, and soil erosion and floods, respectively).

2.      Change in land use: risk of abandonment and other pressures

Mountain farmland is in general characterized by extensive practices, whose abandonment has negative effects on biodiversity, soil and landscape values. People have started to migrate towards lower altitude in search of opportunities.

3.      Accessibility, distance from the market and digital divide

The study of accessibility indicators, such as the distance in minutes or in km from cities  with at least 100 000 inhabitants (Nordregio 2004) has shown that only few mountain areas – except those with a major tourism industry – have levels of accessibility comparable to those in lowland areas.  Distance from the market and high transport costs heavily affect the viability of mountain farms, as they may significantly increase the cost of mountain products. Difficult access to the farm, especially in winter may also hinder the agricultural activity and in some cases lead to the abandonment of the most peripheral parcels. It is also reported that slope areas traditionally used as intermediate pasture before or after the high altitude summer pasture are less and less mowed and grazed.

Strengths and opportunities

1.      Quality products

There is a wealth of traditions and know-how relating to food production and processing in mountain areas and the mountain image is associated in the eyes of consumers with goods of a certain added value. A degree of homogeneity is discernible as far as production methods are concerned, especially when it comes to animal husbandry. Examples of specific traditional mountain farming features include: extensive rearing, feeding from comparatively large free-range pastures, and preference for natural food, longstanding traditional know-how (pastoral systems, transhumance, etc.).

2.      Mountain agriculture, the environment and public goods

Agriculture in mountain areas has created unique landscapes including region-specific features and meadows, often depending on traditional livestock management. Well managed agricultural landscapes have not only high eco-system values; with their scenic and recreation feature they are a key asset for other businesses, such as the tourism industry. Such attractive landscapes managed by agriculture constitute important comparative advantages for mountain territories, since they are highly specific to their location and cannot be transferred to other places like other assets. 

3.      Pluri-activity and diversification

In mountain areas there is generally a strong link between agriculture and other economic activities (tourism and forestry in particular). The combination of income sources from agriculture, tourism and diversification activities is an important element against marginalization trends. These interactions open opportunities both for the farmers (e.g. tourism on the farm close to hill stations) and for the actors of the interlinked sectors (e.g. touristic attractiveness of the area maintained by agricultural landscapes). Other activities act as a safety net when crisis prevails in one sector. 

Mountain Specialty

The important conditions characterizing mountain areas which, for operational purposes, separate mountain habitats from other areas are termed here as ‘mountain specificities’. The important six mountain specificities, (some of which might be shared by other areas such as deserts in the plains) are considered here. The first four, namely, inaccessibility, fragility, marginality, and diversity or heterogeneity may be called first order specificities. Natural suitability or ‘niche’ for some activities/products, in which mountains have comparative advantage over plains, and ‘human adaptation mechanisms’ in mountain habitats, are two second order specificities. The latter are different from the former, in the sense that they are responses or adaptations to the first order specificities. But nevertheless, they are specific to mountains.

Before describing the major mountain ‘specificities’, it should be noted that these characteristics are not only interrelated in several ways, but, within the mountains they show considerable variability. For instance, all location in the mountain areas are not equally inaccessible or fragile or marginal. Neither does human adaptation mechanisms have uniform patterns in all mountain habitats. With full recognition of such realities we may briefly introduce the mountain specificities.

1.      Inaccessibility

Due to slopes, altitudes, overall terrain conditions, and periodical seasonal hazards (e.g. landslides, snow storms etc.), inaccessibility is the most known feature of mountain areas (Price 1981; Allan 1986; and Hewitt 1988). Its concrete manifestations are isolation, distance, poor communication, and limited mobility. Besides the dominant physical dimension, it has socio cultural and economic dimensions, which are reflected by socioeconomic differentiation and inequity of access to resources, information, and opportunities. Inaccessibility, greatly help reinforce other conditions such as marginality and diversity as mentioned below.

2.      Fragility 

Mountain areas, due to altitude and steep slopes, in association with geologic, edaphic, and biotic factors, which limit the former’s capacity to withstand even a small degree of disturbance, are known for their fragility. Their vulnerability to irreversible damages due to overuse or rapid changes, extends to physical land surface, vegetative resources, and even delicate economic life support systems of mountain communities. Consequently, when mountain resources and environment start deteriorating due to any disturbance, it happens at a fast rate. In most cases the damage is irreversible or reversible only over a long period (Eckholm 1975; MAB 1975; and Hewitt 1988). This factor is largely responsible for the vicious circle of ‘poverty – resource degradation - poverty’, in the fragile ecological zones of mountain regions (Forman 1988).

3.      Marginality

‘Marginal’ (in any context) is one which counts the least with reference to ‘mainstream’ situation.

This may apply to physical and biological resources or conditions as well as to people and their sustenance systems. The basic factors which contribute to such status of any area or a community, are remoteness and physical isolation, fragile and low - productivity resources, and several man made handicaps including economic inequities and poverty, which prevent one’s participation in the ‘mainstream’ patterns of activities. The above basic factors, also lead to secondary patterns of relationship between ‘mainstream’ and ‘marginal entities’. They are reflected through neglect and exploitation of the latter by the former (Blaikie 1985). The mountain regions being marginal areas as against prime areas in most cases, share the above attributes of marginal entities (Brush 1988; Forman 1988; and Ives 1988) and suffer consequences of such status in different ways.

4.      Diversity or Heterogeneity

In their natural state, some degree of heterogeneity is a characteristic of all types of habitats.

The soil type changes every 20 miles as they say. However, in mountain areas, one finds immense variations among and within eco-zones, even at short distances. This extreme degree of heterogeneity in mountains, is a function of interactions of different factors like elevation, altitude, geologic and edaphic conditions, steepness and orientation of slopes, wind and precipitation, mountain mass, and relief of terrain (Troll 1988). The biological adaptations (e.g. naturally suited plant types) and socioeconomic responses (e.g. cultural patterns, structure of economic activities including crop-livestock mixed farming, etc.), to the above diversities, also acquire a measure of heterogeneity of their own (Price 1981 and Jochim 1981). The ‘diversity or heterogeneity’ phenomenon, applies to all mountains characteristics discussed here.

5.      ‘Niche’ or Comparative Advantage

Owing to their specific environmental and resource related features, mountains provide a ‘niche’ for specific actiyities or products. At the operational level, mountains may have comparative advantage over plains in these activities. Examples may include availability of: seasonally and

 spatially varying biomass to support land extensive activities such as pasture based animal husbandry; specific valleys serving as habitat for special medicinal plants; mountains offering ideal place for economic activities (e.g. electronic factory) which require relatively pollution free cool environment; mountains acting as source of unique products (e.g. some fruits, flowers, and minerals etc.), and mountains serving as the most known sources of hydro-power production.

Thus, ‘niche’ has both physical and biological dimensions. Though not comparable to biophysical niches, it is not difficult to identify some specific socio-cultural characteristics of mountain communities (e.g. their social organisation, attitudes etc.), which may impart some added advantage to them in activities such as management of collective goods and community resources (Ellen 1981 and Jochim 1981). In practice, however, niche or comparative advantage may remain dormant unless circumstances are created to harness it. On the other hand, if certain developments lead to elimination of ‘exclusiveness’ characterising a situation or resource base, the comparative advantage may cease to exist. Production of special hill crops (e.g. flowers, mushrooms, medicinal plants etc.),in the plains, by creating artificial environments or by help of research, is one such example, where the comparative advantage of mountains is lost. However, mountains, owing to their heterogeneity, have several, often narrow, but specific niches, which are harnessed by local communities, through their diversified activities (Whiteman 1988 and Brush 1988). The modern development programmes often lead to their elimination or over exploitation.

Mountain niche (Comparative Advantage)

Nepal is located between two of the world’s most populous countries, India and China, with easy access to both vibrant markets. It has significantly lower tariffs on imports as compared with India, which can make Nepal an attractive location even to Indian investors. Other advantages in Nepal are affordable labor, high profitability, low land cost, and an accessible bureaucracy. Nepal is also entitled to preferential treatment in a number of developed-country markets.

The natural as well as cultural assets of Nepal also offer a substantial opportunity to investors. The country has a range of climatic conditions– from tropical to sub-arctic. The topography is generally mountainous in the north, hilly in the middle, and near sea level in the south. Nepal grows various agriculture products, medicinal herbs, and high-quality tea. There is also a huge potential for hydropower- approximately 43,000 MW is technologically feasible.

The high diversification in topography can serve as a great comparative advantage for commercial vegetable farming (off season), availability of high value crops, expensive medicinal plants and so on.

Despite limited availability of arable land Nepal enjoys CA in agriculture-forestry sector products as a result of her geological diversity and favorable agro-climatic conditions. Because of its co-relationship with rural poverty the sector is politically sensitive and deserves more attention and investment.

Farming with Comparative Advantage and Harnessing Niches

The diverse agroecological conditions prevailing in the mountains form niches

 for horticulture, floriculture, spice cultivation, and medicinal plants. Because of the agroecological requirements of these cash crops, some with wide and some with narrow ranges, these crops can be grown in the hills and mountains with a comparative advantage over the plains, which have an appreciable comparative advantage for growing cereal crops. Alternative cash crop farming in the right niche will give better returns to mountain farming communities.

Mountain farmers receive two-fold benefits from cash crops: the first being

 agroecological, in the sense that particular cash crops can be grown only in particular climates; and the other, the comparative advantage of marketing, in the sense that products do not face competition from farming in the plains. Instead, the market is for mountain products and to facilitate access to food grains.

Nepal’s comparative advantages

-  Nepal has seasonal advantage over India and as such summer vegetables can easily be absorbed in the neighboring states of India.

- The country’s various altitudinal zones make it possible for the country to produce a wide range of produce.

- Nepalese produce are in demand due to the growing conditions and best practices.

Situated in the high land Himalayan region with no or little pollution has brought about customer preferences. 

- The huge market across the border absorbs whatever Nepal can produce.

Although due to the limited arable land, and huge variety of microclimates, the country may not be able to produce large quantities of any product. “So the best prospects for its agriculture lie in the exploitation of a wide variety of niche markets”. Therefore production of high value crops are being encouraged and the shift in the production towards organic crops are under process.

6.      Human Adaptation Mechanisms

Mountains, through their heterogeneity and diversity even at the very micro—level, offer a complex of constraints and opportunities. Mountain communities through trial and error, over the generations, have evolved their own adaptation mechanisms (Pant 1935; Guillet 1983; and Jochim 1981). Accordingly, the mountain characteristics are either modified (e.g. through terracing and irrigation) to suit their needs or activities are designed to adjust to the requirements to mountain conditions (e.g. by combined zone specific activities such as crop-livestock based mixed farming, transhumance etc.). Adaptation mechanisms or experiences are reflected through formal and informal arrangements for management of resources, diversified and interlinked activities to harness micro-niches of specific eco-zones, and effective use of upland - lowland links (Allan 1986; Forman 1988; Brush 1988 and Whiteman 1988).

It may be repeated that harnessing of ‘niches’ or ‘comparative advantages’, too, could be treated as a part of human adaptations to mountain conditions seen as opportunities. Viewed this way, the two second order mountain specificities (i.e. ‘niche’ and ‘adaptation mechanism’), have human effort as a crucial common factor. This differentiates them from other mountain characteristics discussed above. While inaccessibility, fragility, marginality, and heterogeneity, represent structural features of mountains, human adaptations and, to a greater extent, ‘niche’ represent operational consequences of the former. However, since the ‘operational consequences’ considered, are also unique and are unmistakable features of mountain realities, we have treated them as mountain specificities.

Conditions relating to production processes

·         Intensified use of resources which, historically, facilitated and favoured achievement of increased economic performance in most countries of the world; in mountain areas intensified use of resources was prevented by limited accessibility, fragility, marginality and, to some extent, diversity and subsistence-oriented traditional adaptations ( Jodha 2005).

·         Specialisation generated by incentives to earn big profits and associated economies of scale which, historically, has helped to enhance economic performance elsewhere were obstructed in mountain areas by limited accessibility, fragility, marginality, and diversity and as well as more broadly (rather than purely economically) focused human adaptations developed by mountain communities.

·         High productivity and generation of tradeable surplus necessary for increased exchange and investment necessary for high economic performance, were obstructed by the same limited accessibility, fragility, marginality, and traditional human adaptation practices in mountain areas.

Conditions relating to post-production processes

·         Infrastructure for both value addition and market links essential for enhanced economic performance that also facilitates intensified resource use was obstructed by limited accessibility, fragility, marginality, and specific human adaptation measures.

·         Equitable external links to ensure favourable terms of trade and harnessing of niche opportunities to enhance economic performance were also obstructed in mountain areas by inaccessibility, fragility, marginality and diversity, and so on.

·         Finally, human capacities and responses capable of identifying and capturing external income-generating opportunities were also blocked by the same conditions of limited accessibility (which isolates mountain areas and require costly logistics to overcome), physical and social marginalities, unconnected diversities, and generally localised subsistence systems in mountain areas.

·         Policy makers and planners are not unaware of these constraining features in mountain areas, but mountain people’s adequate and integrated treatment or effective adaptation to these conditions make these conditions unclear for policy makers and thus, addressing them continues to be a major gap in mountain development strategies.

·         On the other hand, the potential opportunities and comparative advantages of mountain areas for niche resources and the dimensions of mountain diversity are important features that converge with the conditions that have been observed to promote income and prosperity and are part of the growth processes observed all over the world. But harnessing these potentials has once again been obstructed by poor accessibility, fragility, marginality, and low levels of human skills in mountain areas. Furthermore, wherever these opportunities have been harnessed has been brought about by mainstream external systems, largely for their own benefit.

Himalayan honey bee programme

Sustained donor support for the Himalayan honeybee project (Apis cerana, the indigenous honeybees of the Himalayas and a niche product) has helped us to arrive at a good understanding of bee-plant-community relationships from the environmental and livelihood perspectives. After almost two decades of work, ICIMOD has developed a honeybee technology that has distinct pro-poor attributes. ICIMOD’s programme on the Himalayan honeybee is the largest of its kind the world.

Beekeeping is not a new activity in the Himalayas and, hence, improvement of the indigenous practice or technology is understood and accepted by local people, more so as most of the work is done on farms. Raising bees does not require land, hence, the technology is suitable for marginal farmers as well as the landless poor. It does not have any negative impacts on the environment and the pollination services provided by honeybees generate both a tangible and intangible environment and economic benefits. The technology is women- friendly and helps women earn additional income. Furthermore, beekeeping is not confined to one product only and has multiple products aside from honey. Honeybee enterprises are versatile and can produce multiple products: multiplication of colonies provide pollination services; queen rearing is an enterprise in itself; cosmetics can be developed from wax, and so on. All of these provide new sources of income in rural areas. These factors, therefore, contribute to the wide acceptance of the technology. Efforts are now underway to upscale the project in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal through partners with large rural development networks.

Examples of poverty reduction are given below.

 • Studies carried out in Jumla, Nepal, show that beekeepers are earning an average of Rs 4,152 (US$ 85) per year from their backyard bee farms.

• A beekeeper in Kaski, Nepal, has been able to earn Rs 55,000 (US$ 775) in a year from selling bee colonies and queens.

• In Jumla, one beekeeper was able to sell honey worth Rs 40,000 (US$ 563) in an year.

Thirty-two percent of arable land in the apple growing state of Himachal Pradesh are growing horticultural crops. Apples are the main cash crop in Himachal, accounting for 42% (78,000 ha) of the total area under fruit cultivation and about 90% (277,000 mt) of the total fruit production. To many of the nearly 150,000 apple growers in Himachal Pradesh, apple growing contributes 60-80% of their total household income. The Himachal apple industry is estimated to be worth about US $1.7 billion per year, with about US $150-170 million being contributed directly and about US $1.5 billion being contributed indirectly by providing jobs to thousands of people not only in Himachal but also in Asia’s biggest fruit market in Delhi during the six-month apple-selling season.

TOURISM

Opulence of topographical heterogeneity and cultural heritage make Nepal one of the most favored tourist destinations of the world. Neighboring Indians from the hot plains find the place even more magnetic and convenient because of the cool climate, mountains, pilgrimage sites, close proximity, free visa access and currency convertibility facilities. With growing middle and upper class population both in India and China, willing to and capable of spending on travel, sky is the limit for our hospitality industry.

But, apart from sector related bottlenecks and poor infrastructure, rampant acts of anarchy like strikes, extortions and chakkajams are poisoning this otherwise thriving but sensitive industry.


Himalayan bioresources

The Himalayan ranges are the youngest and loftiest among the mountain systems of the world. They represent a highly complex and diversified system both in terms of biological and physical attributes. Their vulnerability toward natural and human-induced disturbances is well recognized. On account of richness and uniqueness of biodiversity elements, the region has been recognized as one of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots. It represents 3 sub-centers (west Himalaya, east Himalaya and north east region) of plant origin, which, respectively, contribute 125, 82 and 132 species of wild relatives. The eastern Himalaya and north eastern sub-centers are known for contribution to Musa and Citrus diversity. The prevailing primitive agricultural systems in the region and conscious and unconscious selections by indigenous farming communities have contributed toward enormous enrichment of genetic diversity in the form of land races. Diversity of representative natural ecosystems (grasslands and woodlands) and richness of endemic bioresources have added to the ecological significance of the Himalaya. Particularly, the alpine grasslands and the forests of the region exhibit unique features. Furthermore, medicinal and wild edible plants add substantially to the ecological and economic value of the region. However, Himalayan ecosystems and their components are highly vulnerable both due to geological reasons and on account of stress caused by increased pressure of population. Also, there are growing indications that the ill effects of these factors may be exacerbated on account of the impact of climate change. This would affect the very sustenance of the indigenous communities living in the uplands as well as downstream areas. Therefore, there is an urgent need for making conscious efforts for conserving all representative systems. In this context, the existing conservation area network in the region, which appears to be stronger than the country average, is one welcome initiative. This network, however, requires strengthening to provide adequate coverage to all representative ecosystems, particularly in north east. Need for a major shift in the conservation approach through community support, and by way of promotion of sustainable use concept, has been suggested to ensure conservation of Himalayan bioresources. This is pivotal for maintaining vital stocks of unique, often endemic elements, for the natural evolutionary processes to continue for maintaining vital stocks of unique, often endemic elements, for the natural evolutionary processes to continue.

High-Value Agriculture Project in Hill and Mountain Areas

 This project helps remote communities to integrate into the local rural economy through initiatives that develop small businesses, increase trade and build the capacity of rural institutions. The project operates in mid-western Nepal, where there is a need for improved infrastructure and better access to services and markets.

Because one of the challenges facing poor rural people living in Nepal's hill and mountain areas is economic exclusion, the project targets socially excluded and vulnerable people such as dalits, indigenous groups and women. It aims to increase the incomes of these segments of the population by responding to the private sector's demand for 18 high-value crops – including vegetables, fruits, non-timber forest products, medicinal and aromatic plants, and livestock – which are currently not well processed or marketed.

The project also enables farmers to:

• Develop strong commercial links with traders and sustainably raise their incomes
• Receive training and support in production and post-harvest techniques
• Improve their access to technical services, finances, farm supplies and market information.

Source: IFAD

High Value Cash Crops

Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants under agroforestry
Medicinal and aromatic plants are not only conserved to maintain biodiversity and natural resources; indigenous and economically viable species are also cultivated within agroforestry systems. This can provide a source of income to community forest user groups and others, as well as enhancing the existing natural resources. ICIMOD is developing and demonstrating cultivation methods for a range of perennial medicinal and aromatic (spice) plants, whose leaves, fruits, or bark can be collected and sold. These include two large sites of the spice large (black) cardamom planted under (nitrogen-fixing) Alnus trees.

Shitake mushroom

Shitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes), known as ‘migra’ in Nepal, is found in hill region forests growing on hardwood logs near streams. When young, it is umbrella-shaped; at maturity it has white spots on its surface. A mature  mushroom weighs about 80-100 gm. Delicious and nutritious, it is a popular food in China, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Taiwan. There is a great potential for cultivating shitake in mountain areas of Nepal and other parts of the Himalayan region. The technology is demonstrated at Godavari as it can be a good income-generating crop for forest user groups, private entrepreneurs, and ordinary farmers. Usually, oak billets (logs) are used, but many other hardwood billets can also produce shitake (except pine species). Essentially logs are felled in autumn or winter and inoculated with Lentinus edodes mycelium by injection into small holes drilled at intervals along the log that are then sealed. The inoculated logs are stacked in criss-cross piles in the shade and left covered with straw or sacking for about 2 months. After rainfall, the pile is uncovered briefly to allow the bark to dry and prevent growth of other unwelcome fungi. After two months, the billets are restacked in a loose crib stack or a lean-to stack. The spawn run is nearly complete when fuzzy white blotches appear at the ends of the billet or mushrooms sprout after rainfall, about 10 months after inoculation. The mushrooms are harvested after the veil breaks while the caps still have curled edges and are less than 10 cm in diameter. During cool weather, the mushrooms can be left on the billets for many days. When it is warm, growers harvest early and often to minimize bug damage and discoloration from spore discharge. Shitake mushrooms flourish in 60% or higher shade outdoors (not darkness) where ventilation is good. Water is needed several times a year but not continuously (the bark should dry out between watering to avoid destructive surface moulds). Shitake yards should be in places that can be visited daily, not too remote from other activities. Fresh Shiitake will keep for 2-3 weeks in the refrigerator, but should be marketed within 4 to 5 days of picking. The mushroom contains a good blend of vitamins (A, C and D) and minerals. As little as five grams of shitake taken daily can dramatically reduce serum cholesterol and blood pressure; it also produces interleukin compounds which strengthen the immune response against cancer and virus infections.

Broom grass

In Nepal and other countries in the HKH region, there is quite a large market for broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima), a special grass used for making brooms for sweeping. The grass thrives best on marginal lands. As well as providing cash income when sold as brooms, it provides green forage for livestock, the roots promote soil conservation, and the dried stems can be used as stakes to support growing vegetables.

Seed production

Production of seed for sale can be a valuable niche activity for mountain farmers as the product is low volume and can be stored for a long time until it can be taken to market. Seed production of indigenous species is also an activity supporting genetic resources conservation. Seed production is demonstrated at ICIMOD both as an example of an income generating activity and to produce seeds for distribution to farmers and farmers groups and projects – especially rehabilitation projects, government agencies, and partner organizations from ICIMOD’s member countries.

Bamboo management

Different species of bamboo are widely used for a variety of purposes by mountain people. They are used in construction and fencing; for basketry, mats, and furniture; as food and animal fodder; and for many minor products. Bamboo makes an important contribution to the socioeconomic development of mountain people. It is important to manage bamboo clumps well to ensure good development of culms in size and number. Without proper management, the clumps become underproductive and susceptible to fungi that can reduce their vigour and even destroy them. In the conventional harvesting method, the peripheral culms are removed, which later leads to congestion at the centre of the clump and leads to extraction problems. Farmers generally prefer to cut bamboo culms at ground level and not leave a stump. However, in reality it is better to cut a bamboo culm above a node or few internodes above ground level so that it will produce more new shoots. The bamboo culms need to be harvested at around three to four years of age; after four years, fewer shoots are produced and the quality of the bamboo slowly deteriorates. The bamboo management plot was established to demonstrate better ways of managing bamboo clumps to produce more shoots and higher quality bamboo. The management methods demonstrated at the centre (traditional vs tunnel method) were tested by research institutes in China and the Forest Research and Survey Center, Nepal.

Floriculture – landscaping with indigenous and exotic flowers

An increasing number of houses and public buildings are being built in the newly expanding urban areas of Nepal, opening up a new market for decorative flowers and garden plants, and a new possibility for income generation for farmers with access to these areas. The activities at the site focus on propagation of indigenous and exotic plants for use in landscaping and decorative gardens. The results are being used in practice in the landscaping of the new ICIMOD Headquarters building and the Knowledge Park at Godavari.

High-value Cash Crop Farming: Experiences from the Hindu Kush-Himalayas

Given contemporary realities and constraints, there seem to be few alternatives to cash crop farming in the hills /mountains for communities to gain access to improved incomes from farmland. In the past few decades, the importance of high-value cash crops for improving the economy of mountain populations has been realised in several pockets of the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region. Some of the high-value cash crops have specific agroclimatic and soil requirements which provide unique opportunities for mountain people to produce unprocessed, semi-processed, and processed fresh and dry fruits, vegetables, spices, mushrooms, aromatic plants, medicinal plants, and flowers

 (horticulture). The promotion of horticulture, which has several of the components of cash crop farming, has also received attention in the development priorities of many mountain areas of the HKH countries, but not all areas have succeeded in cash crop farming. Two select and outstanding success stories from the HKH region are briefly narrated here to highlight the socioeconomic impact of cash crop farming.

The cash crops currently cultivated in mountain areas are a mixture of both high-value, high-volume perishable types as well as high-value, low- volume non-perishable types. Both types can be grouped into horticulture, floriculture, olericulture, and medicinal plants. Among the fruit and nut cash crops; apples, peaches, pears, apricots, plums, cherries, walnuts, pecan nuts, hazelnuts, almonds, strawberries, raspberries, loganberries, and currants are cultivated under various mountain agroecological conditions. For example, the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region has a monopoly on the cultivation of temperate fruits. One can also include several types of sub-tropical and tropical fruits in the category of hill fruits, since these are cultivated in the hills because of their comparative advantage of late maturity, bringing off-season marketing benefits.

Besides fruits, a variety of temperate, off-season vegetables (grown during periods when they are not cultivated in the plains) have also become known for their high-value potential. These include tomatoes, cauliflowers, capsicum, peas, potatoes (particularly seed potatoes), ginger, and garlic. Of these vegetables, two or three crops are grown in a year at different elevations and under different agroclimatic conditions.